Lithium-ion Batteries: Green Solution or Grey Paradigm of the Modern World

Abstract

The paper evaluates the impact of global lithium-ion battery (LIB) production on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, represented as CO_2,eq. In the context of the Paris Agreement and decarbonization, a conservative CtG-GtW (Cradle-to-Gate + Grid-to-Wheel) methodology is used to analyze the production cycle of the two dominant technologies: lithium-nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC) and lithium-iron-phosphate (LFP). The study tracks the supply chain from raw material extraction for Li (spodumene, lepidolite, and brines), metal concentrate, and intercontinental shipment to China, through to final cell manufacturing, and battery shipment.

Results show that the global production of 1.545 TWh generates a total mean of 288 Mt CO_2,eq, accounting to 0.8% of global fossil fuel emissions. The mean specific emissions are ~190 kg CO_2,eq kWh^–1, which is nearly seven times higher than the sustainability target of ~27 kg CO_2,eq kWh^–1 for the electric vehicles. By comparing diesel and EV-NMC and EV-LFP cars, emissions of EV become lower than those of diesel, after ~6.3 years in the EU, ~8 years in the USA, and globally practically never occur. The findings suggest that current lithium-based energy storage requires urgent decarbonization, lowering CO_2,eq emission for charging from the electric grid, or substitution by alternative systems, such as sodium-ion batteries, intensification of biofuel technologies, to align with global climate goals. The paper also, consider socio-ecological impact of Li-ion battery productions.